The book presents an up-to-date, detailed overview of the Quaternary glaciations all over the world, not only with regard to stratigraphy but also with regard to major glacial landforms and the extent of the respective ice sheets. The locations of key sites are included. The information is presented in digital, uniformly prepared maps which can be used in a Geographical Information System (GIS) such as ArcView or ArcGIS. The accompanying text supplies the information on how the data were obtained (geomorphology, geological mapping, air photograph evaluation, satellite imagery), how the features were dated (14C, TL, relative stratigraphy) and how reliable they are supposed to be. All references to the underlying basic publications are included. Where controversial interpretations are possible e.g. in Siberia or Tibet, this is pointed out. As a result, the information on Quaternary glaciations worldwide will be much improved and supplied in a uniform digital format. The information on the glacial limits is compiled in digital form by the coordinators of the project, and is available for download at: http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444534477/
1. Introduction 2. 1.1. Introduction 3. 1.2. The Digital Maps 4. 1.3. The Geology 5. 1.4. Summary 6. Quaternary Glaciations in Austria 7. 2.1. Introduction 8. 2.2. The Course of the Quaternary 9. 2.3. The Four Alpine Glaciations 10. 2.4. Tectonic Activity 11. 2.5. Development of Glaciers 12. 2.6. Overdeepened Valleys 13. 2.7. Last Interglacial-Glacial Cycle 14. 2.8. Chronology 15. 2.9. Phase of Ice Decay 16. 2.10. The Bühl Phase 17. 2.11. The Steinach Phase 18. 2.12. The Gschnitz Phase 19. 2.13. Chronology 20. 2.14. The Daun Phase 21. 2.15. The Egesen Phase 22. The Pleistocene Glaciations in Belarus 23. 3.1. Introduction 24. 3.2. Varyazh Glaciation 25. 3.3. Narev Glaciation 26. 3.4. Berezina Glaciation 27. 3.5. Pripyat’ Glaciation 28. 3.6. Poozerian Glaciation 29. 3.7. Conclusions 30. Pleistocene Glaciations of Czechia 31. 4.1. Introduction 32. 4.2. Continental Glaciation 33. 4.3. Elsterian Glaciations 34. 4.4. Saalian Glaciation 35. 4.5. Mountain Glaciations 36. 4.6. Pre-Weichselian Glaciation 37. 4.7. Weichselian Glaciation 38. 4.8. Conclusions 39. Pleistocene Glaciations in Denmark: A Closer Look at Chronology, Ice Dynamics and Landforms 40. 5.1. Introduction 41. 5.2. The Pleistocene of Denmark 42. 5.3. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 43. 5.4. The Saalian Glaciation 44. 5.5. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 45. 5.6. Conclusions 46. The Glacial History of the British Isles during the Early and Middle Pleistocene: Implications for the long-term development of the British Ice Sheet 47. 6.1. Introduction 48. 6.2. Early and Middle Pleistocene Glacial History of the British Isles 49. 6.3. Discussion 50. 6.4. Conclusions 51. Acknowledgements 52. Pleistocene Glaciation Limits in Great Britain 53. 7.1. Introduction 54. 7.2. Evidence for glaciations 55. 7.3. The British Pleistocene succession 56. 7.4. The ‘traditional model’ of East Anglian glacial stratigraphy 57. Acknowledgement 58. Pleistocene Glaciations in Estonia 59. 8.1. Introduction 60. 8.2. Early Pleistocene 61. 8.3. Middle Pleistocene 62. 8.4. Late Pleistocene 63. 8.5. Conclusions 64. The Glaciation of Finland 65. 9.1. Introduction 66. 9.2. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 67. 9.3. Late Pleistocene Glaciations (ca. 110–11.7ka) 68. Quaternary Glaciations in the French Alps and Jura 69. 10.1. Introduction 70. 10.2. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations, the External Moraine Complex 71. 10.3. Late Pleistocene Glaciations, the Internal Moraine Complex 72. 10.4. Conclusions 73. Recent Advances in Research on Quaternary Glaciations in the Pyrenees 74. 11.1. Introduction 75. 11.2. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 76. 11.3. The Last Pleistocene Glacial Cycle (Würmian Stage) 77. 11.4. Conclusions 78. Late Pleistocene (Würmian) Glaciations of the Caucasus 79. 12.1. Introduction 80. 12.2. Methods of Investigation 81. 12.3. Results 82. 12.4. The Western Caucasus 83. 12.5. The Central Caucasus 84. 12.6. The Eastern Caucasus 85. 12.7. The Minor Caucasus 86. 12.8. Conclusions 87. Pleistocene Glaciations of North Germany—New Results 88. 13.1. Introduction 89. 13.2. Traces of Early glaciation 90. 13.3. The Elsterian glaciation 91. 13.4. The Holsteinian Interglacial 92. 13.5. The Saalian Complex 93. 13.6. The Dömnitz Interglacial 94. 13.7. The Saalian glaciation 95. 13.8. The Eemian Stage Interglacial 96. 13.9. The Weichselian glaciation 97. Pleistocene Glaciations of Southern Germany 98. 14.1. Introduction 99. 14.2. Stratigraphical results and concepts 100. 14.3. Regional description 101. 14.4. Arguable Early Pleistocene glaciations derived from oldest gravel spreads 102. 14.5. Stratigraphical implications from sediments overlying the Zusamplatte gravel (Uhlenberg site and others) 103. 14.6. Ältere Deckenschotter and possibly equivalent glaciation 104. 14.7. Mittlere Deckenschotter and possibly equivalent glaciation 105. 14.8. Jüngere Deckenschotter and equivalent glaciation 106. 14.9. Incision between Jüngere Deckenschotter and Hochterrasse, ‘third from last’ glaciation and the Samerberg site 107. 14.10. The belt of morainic amphitheatres correlated with the penultimate glaciation 108. 14.11. Eemian stage interglacial 109. 14.12. Last glaciation (Würmian) 110. 14.13. Glaciations of low mountain ranges 111. Acknowledgements 112. Glaciation in Greece 113. 15.1. Introduction 114. 15.2. The Glacial Record on Mount Olympus, Northeast Greece 115. 15.3. The Glacial Record on Mount Tymphi, Northwest Greece 116. 15.4. The First Uranium-Series Ages for the Glacial Record in Greece 117. 15.5. Towards a Formal Stratigraphical Framework for the Glacial Record in Greece 118. 15.6. Secondary Carbonate Formation and Environmental Change 119. 15.7. Palaeoclimate Reconstructions from Glacial Geomorphological Data 120. 15.8. River Response to Glaciation and the Last Glacial-to-Interglacial Transition 121. 15.9. The Mount Tymphi and Mount Olympus records 122. 15.10. Pleistocene ELAs Across Greece 123. 15.11. Conclusions and Future Research Needs 124. Acknowledgements 125. Pliocene and Pleistocene Glaciations of Iceland 126. 16.1. Introduction 127. 16.2. Tertiary Glaciations—Earliest Signs of Glaciation in South-East and East Iceland (>3–2.59Ma) 128. 16.3. Early- to Mid-Pleistocene Glaciation (2.59–0.78Ma)—An Icelandic Ice Sheet is Established 129. 16.4. Middle to Late Pleistocene Glaciations in Iceland (0.78–0.126Ma) 130. 16.5. From the Last Glacial Maximum Through to the Last Deglaciation (<0.126Ma) 131. 16.6. Early Holocene Thermal Maximum and the Onset of Neoglaciation 132. 16.7. Glacial Limits and Quality of Data 133. 16.8. Dating of Glacial Limits—Reliability of Dates 134. 16.9. Conclusions 135. Middle Pleistocene to Holocene Glaciations in the Italian Apennines 136. 17.1. Introduction 137. 17.2. Middle Pleistocene glaciations 138. 17.3. Late Pleistocene glaciation 139. 17.4. Holocene neoglaciation 140. 17.5. Conclusions 141. Acknowledgements 142. Pleistocene Glaciations in Latvia 143. 18.1. Introduction 144. 18.2. Early Pleistocene Glaciation 145. 18.3. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 146. 18.4. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 147. 18.5. Glacial Limits 148. 18.6. Conclusions 149. Acknowledgements 150. Pleistocene Glaciations in Lithuania 151. 19.1. Introduction 152. 19.2. Early Pleistocene Glaciation 153. 19.3. Middle Pleistocene 154. 19.4. Late Pleistocene. Lower and Middle Weichselian Substage Glaciations (Nemunas) 155. 19.5. Conclusions 156. Acknowledgements 157. Pleistocene Glaciation in The Netherlands 158. 20.1. Pre-Elsterian glaciations 159. 20.2. The Elsterian glaciation 160. 20.3. The Saalian glaciation in the Netherlands 161. 20.4. The Weichselian glaciation in the North Sea 162. 20.5. Conclusions 163. Acknowledgements 164. The Pleistocene Glaciations of the North Sea Basin 165. 21.1. Introduction 166. 21.2. Early Pleistocene glaciation(s) 167. 21.3. Middle Pleistocene/pre-Elsterian glaciations 168. 21.4. The Elsterian (MIS 12) 169. 21.5. The Saalian (MIS 6–10) 170. 21.6. The Weichselian (MIS 5d–2) 171. 21.7. Summary 172. 21.8. Note on the Maps 173. Acknowledgements 174. Glacial History of Norway 175. 22.1. Introduction 176. 22.2. Early and Middle Quaternary Glaciations 177. 22.3. The Late Quaternary Glaciations—The Weichselian 178. 22.4. The Early and Middle Weichselian 179. 22.5. The Late Weichselian 180. Quaternary Glaciations in Poland 181. 23.1. Introduction 182. 23.2. Early Pleistocene Glaciations 183. 23.3. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 184. 23.4. Late Pleistocene Glaciation 185. 23.5. Conclusions 186. New Evidence on the Quaternary Glaciation in the Romanian Carpathians 187. 24.1. Introduction 188. 24.2. The setting 189. 24.3. Methodological aspects 190. 24.4. The arguments 191. 24.5. Eastern Carpathians 192. 24.6. The Southern Carpathians 193. 24.7. The Apuseni Mountains 194. 24.8. Glacier orientations 195. 24.9. Problems of age assignment 196. 24.10. Reconstructed Pleistocene ELAs 197. 24.11. Conclusions and open questions 198. Ice Margins of Northern Russia Revisited 199. 25.1. Introduction 200. 25.2. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 201. 25.3. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 202. 25.4. New Solutions 203. 25.5. Conclusion 204. Acknowledgements 205. Glaciations of the East European Plain 206. 26.1. Introduction 207. 26.2. Likovo Glaciation 208. 26.3. Akulovo Interglacial 209. 26.4. Krasikovo Interglacial 210. 26.5. Setun’ Glaciation 211. 26.6. Okatovo Interglacial 212. 26.7. Don Glaciation 213. 26.8. Muchkap Interglacial 214. 26.9. Ikorets Interglacial 215. 26.10. Oka Glaciation 216. 26.11. Likhvin Interglacial 217. 26.12. Pechora Glaciation 218. 26.13. Kamenka Interglacial 219. 26.14. Dnieper Glacial Epoch 220. 26.15. Mikulino Interglacial 221. 26.16. Valdai Glaciation 222. Glacial History of the Barents Sea Region 223. 27.1. Introduction 224. 27.2. Physiography and Quaternary Sediments 225. 27.3. Palaeogene and Neogene 226. 27.4. Early Pleistocene (~2.6 to ~0.7Ma) 227. 27.5. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations (0.78–0.12Ma) 228. 27.6. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 229. 27.7. The Early and Middle Weichselian Glacial History 230. 27.8. The Late Weichselian Ice Sheet 231. Acknowledgements 232. Glacial History of the Taymyr Peninsula and the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, Arctic Russia 233. 28.1. Introduction 234. 28.2. The Middle Pleistocene Pre-Saalian History 235. 28.3. The Middle/Late Pleistocene Transition: The Saalian and Eemian Stages 236. 28.4. The Build-Up of KSIS: Changing Paradigms 237. 28.5. The Early Weichselian—The Weichselian Glaciation Maximum on Taymyr 238. 28.6. Deglaciation from the Early Weichselian Maximal Position to the Byrranga Mountains 239. 28.7. The North Taymyr Ice-Marginal Zone 240. 28.8. The Early Weichselian NTZ Stage 241. 28.9. The Middle Weichselian NTZ Stage 242. 28.10. The Late Weichselian NTZ Stage 243. 28.11. The Severnaya Zemlya Islands During the Weichselian Stage 244. 28.12. Summary of Results 245. Glacial History of Slovenia 246. 29.1. Introduction 247. 29.2. Early/Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 248. 29.3. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 249. 29.4. Conclusions 250. Quaternary Glaciations of Turkey 251. 30.1. Introduction 252. 30.2. Quaternary Glacial Landforms 253. 30.3. The Taurus Mountains 254. 30.4. Mountain Ranges Along the Eastern Black Sea 255. 30.5. Volcanoes and Individual Mountains on the Anatolian Plateau 256. 30.6. Conclusions 257. Acknowledgements 258. Limits of the Pleistocene Glaciations in the Ukraine 259. 31.1. Introduction 260. 31.2. The Interpretation of the Primary Data 261. 31.3. The Oka Glaciation in the Western and Northern Parts of the Ukraine and in the Eastern and Southern Parts of Belarus 262. 31.4. The Dnieper Glaciation in the Central and Northern Ukraine and Adjacent Regions of Russia 263. 31.5. Mountain Glaciation in the Ukrainian Carpathians 264. 31.6. Conclusion 265. Acknowledgements 266. Chronology and Extent of Late Cenozoic Ice Sheets in North America 267. Alaska Palaeo-Glacier Atlas (Version 2) 268. 33.1. Introduction 269. 33.2. GIS Procedures 270. 33.3. Palaeo-Glacier Limits 271. 33.4. Regional Updates for APG Atlas v2 272. 33.5. Discussion 273. Full Citation 274. Glaciations of the Sierra Nevada, California, USA 275. 34.1. Introduction 276. 34.2. Glacial Advances 277. 34.3. Discussion 278. 34.4. Summary 279. Acknowledgements 280. Pleistocene Glaciation of Hawaii 281. Quaternary Glaciations in Illinois 282. 36.1. Introduction 283. 36.2. Pre-Illinois Episode 284. 36.3. Illinois Episode 285. Ice-Margin Fluctuations at the End of the Wisconsin Episode, Michigan, USA 286. 37.1. Introduction 287. 37.2. Structure of the Diachronic Classification 288. 37.3. Major Glacial Phases in Michigan 289. 37.4. Discussion 290. 37.5. Summary 291. The Quaternary of Minnesota 292. 38.1. General Character and Age of Quaternary Deposits in Minnesota 293. 38.2. Lithostratigraphy of Quaternary Deposits in Minnesota 294. Pleistocene Glaciation of Ohio, USA 295. 39.1. Introduction 296. 39.2. Tertiary Period 297. 39.3. Early Pleistocene Glaciations 298. 39.4. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 299. 39.5. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 300. 39.6. Conclusions 301. The Glaciation of Pennsylvania, USA 302. 40.1. Introduction 303. 40.2. Discussion of the Glacial Limits 304. 40.3. Discussion of the Dating of the Age of the Glacial Limits 305. 40.4. Early Pleistocene Pseudo-Moraine at Selinsgrove and Allentown Pennsylvania 306. 40.5. Late Wisconsinan Till Knobs Forming ‘Beaded Valleys’ in North-Eastern Pennsylvania 307. 40.6. Open Questions 308. Glaciation of Western Washington, USA 309. 41.1. Cordilleran Ice Sheet in Western Washington 310. 41.2. Glaciation of the Cascade Range 311. 41.3. Glaciation of the Olympic Mountains 312. The Quaternary of Wisconsin 313. 42.1. Introduction 314. 42.2. Early Pleistocene Glaciations 315. 42.3. Middle Pleistocene (Illinoian Glaciation) 316. 42.4. Late Pleistocene (Wisconsinan Glaciation) 317. 42.5. Driftless Area 318. 42.6. Future Work 319. Acknowledgments 320. Summary of Early and Middle Pleistocene Glaciations in Northern Missouri, USA 321. 43.1. Introduction 322. 43.2. Early Work in Missouri 323. 43.3. Stratigraphy and Lithologies 324. 43.4. Chronology 325. 43.5. Glacial Boundaries 326. 43.6. Correlation and Future Work 327. 43.7. Summary and Conclusions 328. Pleistocene Glaciation of British Columbia 329. 44.1. Introduction 330. 44.2. Character and Extent of Cordilleran Ice Sheet 331. 44.3. Growth and Decay of Cordilleran Ice Sheet 332. 44.4. Glacial Erosion and Deposition 333. 44.5. Crustal Deformation 334. 44.6. Stratigraphical Record and Chronology 335. Limits of Successive Middle and Late Pleistocene Continental Ice Sheets, Interior Plains of Southern and Central Alberta and Adjacent Areas 336. 45.1. Introduction 337. 45.2. Cosmogenic exposure dating of glacial erratics in southern Alberta and northern Montana 338. 45.3. Testing the Barendregt–Irving hypothesis: Stratigraphy in Alberta's buried valleys 339. 45.4. Discussion and conclusions 340. Acknowledgement 341. Appendix A. Methods in the cosmogenic 36Cl dating of glacial erratics around Del Bonita upland 342. Appendix B. Basal gravel predating continental glaciation and its time-transgressive nature 343. Appendix C. Elimination of ‘Labuma Till’ and related allostratigraphic units outside of the Red Deer–Stettler area 344. Magnetostratigraphy of Quaternary Sections in Eastern Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba 345. Chapter 46.1. Introduction 346. 46.2. Study Sites 347. 46.3. Discussion 348. 46.4. Conclusions 349. Late Pleistocene–Early Holocene Decay of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in Québec–Labrador 350. 47.1. Introduction 351. 47.2. Overview of the Glacial History of Québec–Labrador 352. 47.3. The Late Wisconsinan (Late Weichselian)–Holocene Deglaciation of Québec–Labrador: Overview 353. 47.4. The Deglaciation in Southern Québec During Late Wisconsinan: From the St. Lawrence Ice Stream to the Early Phase of Younger Dryas 354. 47.5. The Younger Dryas 355. 47.6. Deglaciation of the Canadian Shield Area (Québec and Labrador) During the Early Holocene 356. 47.7. Ice Retreat in the Southern Margin of the New Québec–Labrador Dome: The Laurentians 357. 47.8. Deglaciation of Central and Southern Labrador 358. 47.9. Deglaciation on the Western Side of the New Québec Dome 359. 47.10. Deglaciation in the Northern Areas of Québec–Labrador 360. 47.11. The Latest Deglaciated Areas in Nunavik, Central New Québec and Western Labrador 361. 47.12. Pending Questions on the Deglaciation of Québec–Labrador 362. 47.13. Conclusions 363. Acknowledgements 364. The Appalachian Glacier Complex in Maritime Canada 365. 48.1. Introduction 366. 48.2. Pre-Illinoian Record 367. 48.3. Northumberland Phase (MIS 6; ~190–130ka) 368. 48.4. Sangamonian Interglacial (MIS 5; 128–75ka) 369. 48.5. Early–Middle Wisconsinan Caledonia Phase (75–50?ka) 370. 48.6. Mid-Wisconsinan Retreat Phase (MIS 3; ~50–25ka) 371. 48.7. Late Wisconsinan Escuminac Phase (MIS 2; 25–20ka) 372. 48.8. Late Wisconsinan Scotian Phase (20–17ka) 373. 48.9. Chignecto Phase (15.9–14.7ka) 374. 48.10. Shulie Lake Phase (~13.8ka) 375. 48.11. Collins Pond Phase (Younger Dryas Chronozone—12.9–11.7ka) 376. 48.12. Discussion: Problems of the Quaternary in Maritime Canada 377. 48.13. Conclusions 378. Stratigraphical Record of Glacials/Interglacials in Northwest Canada 379. 49.1. Introduction 380. 49.2. West-Central Yukon (Tintina Trench, Klondike Plateau, Fort Selkirk) 381. 49.3. Northwest Territories 382. 49.4. Northern British Columbia 383. 49.5. Southern British Columbia 384. 49.6. Regional Correlations 385. 49.7. Late Pliocene preglacial sediments and the first glaciation (MIS G6) 386. 49.8. Earliest Matuyama glaciations (2.2–2.6Ma, MIS 100 or 98 or 96) 387. 49.9. Early Matuyama glaciation (1.98–2.15Ma, MIS 78) 388. 49.10. Olduvai glaciation (1.75–1.98Ma, MIS 70?) 389. 49.11. Late Matuyama glaciations (1.06–1.78Ma, MIS 58, 34) 390. 49.12. Jaramillo Subchron glaciation (0.99–1.05Ma, MIS 30) 391. 49.13. Latest Matuyama glaciation (0.99–0.78Ma, MIS 20 or 22) 392. 49.14. Early Brunhes glaciations (0.78–0.40Ma, MIS 18, 16 and 12?) 393. 49.15. Late Brunhes glaciations (0.40–0.015Ma, MIS 10–2) 394. 49.16. Latest Brunhes glaciations (32–12ka, MIS 2) 395. 49.17. Conclusions 396. Acknowledgements 397. The Greenland Ice Sheet During the Past 300,000 Years: A Review 398. 50.1. Introduction 399. 50.2. Saalian Stage (Fig. 50.2, MIS≥6, ca. 300–130ka BP) 400. 50.3. The Eemian Stage (Fig. 50.2, MIS 5e, 135–115ka BP) 401. 50.4. The Weichselian Stage (MIS 5d-1, ca. 115–11.7ka BP) 402. 50.5. Deglaciation 403. 50.6. Summary 404. Pleistocene Glaciations in Southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego 405. 51.1. Introduction 406. 51.2. The Southern Patagonian palaeo-ice-Lobes 407. 51.3. The Fuegian palaeo-ice-lobes 408. 51.4. Final comments 409. Acknowledgements 410. Pleistocene Glaciations in Northern Patagonia, Argentina: An Updated Review 411. 52.1. Introduction 412. 52.2. The Río Malleo Valley (latitude 39°37′30″S; longitude 71°17′W) 413. 52.3. Heads of the Río Limay and Lago Nahuel Huapi (latitude 41°8′S; longitude 71°8′W) 414. 52.4. The pre-Andean valley of El Maitén (latitude 42°10′S; –longitude 71°10′S) 415. 52.5. Valley of Esquel and Río Corintos (latitude 43°S; longitude 71°W) 416. 52.6. The Río Huemul Valley (latitude 43°30′S; longitude 71°10′W) 417. 52.7. The Río Corcovado Valley (latitude 43°45′S; longitude 71°20′W) and Lago General Vintter (latitude 43°55′S; longitude 71°25′W) 418. 52.8. The Río Pico Valley (latitude 44°10′S; longitude 71°20′W) 419. 52.9. The Río Apeleg Valley (latitude 44°30′S; longitude 71°20′W) 420. 52.10. The sequence of the La Plata and Fontana lakes (latitude 45°S; longitude 71°10′W) 421. 52.11. The El Coyte (latitude 45°15′S; longitude 71°15′W), heads of the Río Mayo (latitude 45°30′S; longitude 71°15′W) and Lago Blanco (latitude 45°55′S; longitude 71°15′W) regions 422. The High-Glacial (Last Glacial Maximum) Glacier Cover of the Aconcagua Group and Adjacent Massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America) with a Closer Look at Further Empirical Evidence 423. 53.1. Introduction 424. 53.2. Results 425. Acknowledgements 426. The Pleistocene Glaciations of Chile 427. 54.1. Introduction 428. 54.2. The Andes 429. 54.3. Methods 430. 54.4. The Maximum Glaciations 431. 54.5. The Early/Middle Weichselian/Wisconsinan Glaciation 432. 54.6. The Last Glacial Maximum and Late-Glacial 433. 54.7. Glaciation During the Younger Dryas Chronozone and Antarctic Cold Reversal 434. 54.8. Discussion 435. 54.9. Conclusions 436. Acknowledgements 437. Late Quaternary Glaciations in Bolivia: Comments on Some New Approaches to Dating Morainic Sequences 438. 55.1. Introduction 439. 55.2. Glacial Geomorphological Sequences of the Cordillera Real 440. 55.3. Pre-Weichselian Glaciation 441. 55.4. The Last Glacial Maximum 442. 55.5. Deglaciation 443. 55.6. The Holocene 444. 55.7. Mapping Glacial Limits 445. 55.8. Remaining Questions 446. Acknowledgements 447. Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia 448. 56.1. Introduction 449. 56.2. Geographical setting 450. 56.3. Tertiary and Early Pleistocene glaciations (>MIS 19; >790ka) 451. 56.4. Middle Pleistocene glaciations (MIS 19–6; 790–132ka) 452. 56.5. Late Pleistocene glaciations (MIS 5–2; 132–11.7ka) 453. 56.6. MIS 1 (Holocene) glaciations (11.7ka–present) 454. 56.7. Conclusions 455. Late Quaternary Glaciations of Ecuador 456. 57.1. Introduction 457. 57.2. Bedded (Stratified) Slope Deposits on Moraines in Ecuador 458. 57.3. Pre-LGM Glaciation (Older than 30ka) 459. 57.4. The Last Glacial Maximum 460. 57.5. Deglaciation 461. 57.6. The Holocene 462. 57.7. Mapping Glacial Limits 463. 57.8. Open Questions 464. Acknowledgements 465. Quaternary Glaciations of Colombia 466. 58.1. Introduction 467. 58.2. Early and Middle Pleistocene Glaciations Recorded by Glaciofluvial Sediment in the Bogotá Basin 468. 58.3. Late Pleistocene and Holocene Glaciations Recorded by Moraines in the Eastern Cordillera 469. 58.4. Mountain Ranges Near Bogotá 470. 58.5. Sierra Nevada del Cocuy 471. 58.6. Comparison with the Glacial Record of the Central Cordillera 472. 58.7. Summary 473. Acknowledgments 474. Late Quaternary Glaciations in the Venezuelan (Mérida) Andes 475. 59.1. Introduction 476. 59.2. Early and Middle Pleistocene 477. 59.3. Late Pleistocene 478. 59.4. Holocene Glacier Fluctuations 479. Costa Rica and Guatemala 480. 60.1. Introduction 481. 60.2. Glacial Geology 482. 60.3. Ice Cap and Valley Glacier Reconstruction 483. 60.4. Equilibrium Line Altitudes 484. 60.5. Discussion 485. Acknowledgements 486. Late Quaternary Glaciation in Mexico 487. 61.1. Introduction 488. 61.2. Iztaccíhuatl 489. 61.3. Nevado de Toluca 490. 61.4. La Malinche volcano 491. 61.5. Ajusco volcano 492. 61.6. Citlaltépetl 493. 61.7. Cofre de Perote 494. 61.8. Tancítaro 495. 61.9. Nevado de Colima 496. 61.10. Cerro Potosí 497. 61.11. Pre-Weichselian (pre-Wisconsinan) 498. 61.12. Weichselian/Wisconsinan glacial maximum (LLGM) and Holocene 499. 61.13. Open questions 500. 61.14. Summary 501. Acknowledgements 502. Late Pleistocene Glaciation of the Hindu Kush, Afghanistan 503. Late Pleistocene Glaciations in North-East Asia 504. 63.1. Introduction 505. 63.2. Relief and climate 506. 63.3. Late Pleistocene glaciations 507. 63.4. Conclusion 508. Acknowledgement 509. Extent and Timing of Quaternary Glaciations in the Verkhoyansk Mountains 510. 64.1. Introduction 511. 64.2. Verkhoyansk Mountains 512. 64.3. Regional comparison 513. 64.4. Conclusion 514. Glaciation in the High Mountains of Siberia 515. 65.1. Introduction 516. 65.2. Methods 517. 65.3. Characteristics controlling the development of glaciation 518. 65.4. Function and structure of the CGS 519. 65.5. Types and occurrence of the CGS 520. 65.6. Timing of glaciation and results of the dating 521. 65.7. Palaeogeographical interpretation 522. 65.8. Conclusions 523. Late Quaternary Glaciation of Northern Pakistan 524. 66.1. Introduction 525. 66.2. Hindu Kush 526. 66.3. Karakoram 527. 66.4. Western Himalaya 528. 66.5. Indus Valley 529. 66.6. Conclusions 530. Acknowledgements 531. Quaternary Glaciation of Northern India 532. 67.1. Introduction 533. 67.2. Regional Setting 534. 67.3. Kashmir 535. 67.4. Lahul Himalaya 536. 67.5. Zanskar 537. 67.6. Ladakh Range 538. 67.7. Garhwal 539. 67.8. Conclusions 540. Acknowledgements 541. The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and Last Glacial Maximum) Ice Cover of High and Central Asia, with a Critical Review of Some Recent OSL and TCN Dates 542. 68.1. Preface 543. 68.2. Introduction: The state of research to 1973 in relation to the author's observations 544. 68.3. Glacial limits: References to the new empirical glacial map database since 2002 545. 68.4. Dating methods and empirical evidence for the general overestimation by numerical dating in High Asia 546. 68.5. The methodological consequences of the comparisons 547. 68.6. Problems: Magnetic field excursions—On the astrophysical sources of error of the TCN technique 548. 68.7. The Question of Aridity 549. 68.8. Conclusions 550. Acknowledgements 551. The Extent and Timing of Late Pleistocene Glaciations in the Altai and Neighbouring Mountain Systems 552. 69.1. Introduction 553. 69.2. Extent of present and Late Pleistocene glaciations 554. 69.3. Present and Late Pleistocene ELA reconstructions 555. 69.4. Timing of Pleistocene glaciations in the Russian Altai and Western Mongolia 556. 69.5. Summary 557. Quaternary Glaciations 558. 70.1. Distribution of Quaternary glacial remnants on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau 559. 70.2. Other mountains 560. 70.3. The sequence of Pleistocene glaciations in China 561. 70.4. ELAS Distributions on the Plateau and the Bordering Mountains 562. 70.5. The Glaciations and the Uplift of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau 563. 70.6. The problem of ice cover 564. 70.7. Conclusions 565. Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Glaciations in the Taiwanese High Mountain Ranges 566. 71.1. Introduction 567. 71.2. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 568. 71.3. Late Glacial and Early Holocene Glaciations 569. 71.4. Equilibrium Line Altitudes and Palaeoclimatic Correlations 570. 71.5. Conclusions 571. Late Quaternary Glaciations in Japan 572. 72.1. Introduction 573. 72.2. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 574. 72.3. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 575. 72.4. Holocene Glaciation 576. The Glaciation of the South-East Asian Equatorial Region 577. 73.1. Introduction 578. 73.2. Western New Guinea (Papua, Indonesia) 579. 73.3. Eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea) 580. 73.4. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 581. 73.5. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 582. 73.6. Conclusions 583. Acknowledgements 584. The Glaciation of Australia 585. 74.1. Introduction 586. 74.2. Snowy Mountains 587. 74.3. Tasmania 588. 74.4. Climate 589. 74.5. Conclusions 590. Acknowledgements 591. Quaternary Glaciers of New Zealand 592. 75.1. Introduction 593. 75.2. Early Pleistocene Glaciers 594. 75.3. Gaps in the Early Pleistocene Glacial Record 595. 75.4. Middle and Late Pleistocene (and Holocene) Glaciers 596. 75.5. Conclusions 597. Acknowledgements 598. Quaternary Glaciations of the Atlas Mountains, North Africa 599. 76.1. Introduction 600. 76.2. The High Atlas 601. 76.3. The Middle Atlas and the Rif 602. 76.4. Algerian Atlas 603. 76.5. Palaeoglaciers in North Africa: Their Importance for Understanding Palaeoclimates 604. 76.6. Conclusions 605. Acknowledgements 606. Quaternary Glacial Chronology of Mount Kenya Massif 607. Glaciation in Southern Africa and in the Sub-Antarctic 608. 78.1. Introduction 609. 78.2. Glaciation in Southern Africa 610. 78.3. The Sub-Antarctic
The book presents an up-to-date, detailed overview of the Quaternary glaciations all over the world, not only with regard to stratigraphy but also with regard to major glacial landforms and the extent of the respective ice sheets. The locations of key sites are included. The information is presented in digital, uniformly prepared maps which can be used in a Geographical Information System (GIS) such as ArcView or ArcGIS. The accompanying text supplies the information on how the data were obtained (geomorphology, geological mapping, air photograph evaluation, satellite imagery), how the features were dated (14C, TL, relative stratigraphy) and how reliable they are supposed to be. All references to the underlying basic publications are included. Where controversial interpretations are possible e.g. in Siberia or Tibet, this is pointed out. As a result, the information on Quaternary glaciations worldwide will be much improved and supplied in a uniform digital format. The information on the glacial limits is compiled in digital form by the coordinators of the project, and is available for download at: http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444534477/
1. Introduction 2. 1.1. Introduction 3. 1.2. The Digital Maps 4. 1.3. The Geology 5. 1.4. Summary 6. Quaternary Glaciations in Austria 7. 2.1. Introduction 8. 2.2. The Course of the Quaternary 9. 2.3. The Four Alpine Glaciations 10. 2.4. Tectonic Activity 11. 2.5. Development of Glaciers 12. 2.6. Overdeepened Valleys 13. 2.7. Last Interglacial-Glacial Cycle 14. 2.8. Chronology 15. 2.9. Phase of Ice Decay 16. 2.10. The Bühl Phase 17. 2.11. The Steinach Phase 18. 2.12. The Gschnitz Phase 19. 2.13. Chronology 20. 2.14. The Daun Phase 21. 2.15. The Egesen Phase 22. The Pleistocene Glaciations in Belarus 23. 3.1. Introduction 24. 3.2. Varyazh Glaciation 25. 3.3. Narev Glaciation 26. 3.4. Berezina Glaciation 27. 3.5. Pripyat’ Glaciation 28. 3.6. Poozerian Glaciation 29. 3.7. Conclusions 30. Pleistocene Glaciations of Czechia 31. 4.1. Introduction 32. 4.2. Continental Glaciation 33. 4.3. Elsterian Glaciations 34. 4.4. Saalian Glaciation 35. 4.5. Mountain Glaciations 36. 4.6. Pre-Weichselian Glaciation 37. 4.7. Weichselian Glaciation 38. 4.8. Conclusions 39. Pleistocene Glaciations in Denmark: A Closer Look at Chronology, Ice Dynamics and Landforms 40. 5.1. Introduction 41. 5.2. The Pleistocene of Denmark 42. 5.3. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 43. 5.4. The Saalian Glaciation 44. 5.5. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 45. 5.6. Conclusions 46. The Glacial History of the British Isles during the Early and Middle Pleistocene: Implications for the long-term development of the British Ice Sheet 47. 6.1. Introduction 48. 6.2. Early and Middle Pleistocene Glacial History of the British Isles 49. 6.3. Discussion 50. 6.4. Conclusions 51. Acknowledgements 52. Pleistocene Glaciation Limits in Great Britain 53. 7.1. Introduction 54. 7.2. Evidence for glaciations 55. 7.3. The British Pleistocene succession 56. 7.4. The ‘traditional model’ of East Anglian glacial stratigraphy 57. Acknowledgement 58. Pleistocene Glaciations in Estonia 59. 8.1. Introduction 60. 8.2. Early Pleistocene 61. 8.3. Middle Pleistocene 62. 8.4. Late Pleistocene 63. 8.5. Conclusions 64. The Glaciation of Finland 65. 9.1. Introduction 66. 9.2. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 67. 9.3. Late Pleistocene Glaciations (ca. 110–11.7ka) 68. Quaternary Glaciations in the French Alps and Jura 69. 10.1. Introduction 70. 10.2. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations, the External Moraine Complex 71. 10.3. Late Pleistocene Glaciations, the Internal Moraine Complex 72. 10.4. Conclusions 73. Recent Advances in Research on Quaternary Glaciations in the Pyrenees 74. 11.1. Introduction 75. 11.2. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 76. 11.3. The Last Pleistocene Glacial Cycle (Würmian Stage) 77. 11.4. Conclusions 78. Late Pleistocene (Würmian) Glaciations of the Caucasus 79. 12.1. Introduction 80. 12.2. Methods of Investigation 81. 12.3. Results 82. 12.4. The Western Caucasus 83. 12.5. The Central Caucasus 84. 12.6. The Eastern Caucasus 85. 12.7. The Minor Caucasus 86. 12.8. Conclusions 87. Pleistocene Glaciations of North Germany—New Results 88. 13.1. Introduction 89. 13.2. Traces of Early glaciation 90. 13.3. The Elsterian glaciation 91. 13.4. The Holsteinian Interglacial 92. 13.5. The Saalian Complex 93. 13.6. The Dömnitz Interglacial 94. 13.7. The Saalian glaciation 95. 13.8. The Eemian Stage Interglacial 96. 13.9. The Weichselian glaciation 97. Pleistocene Glaciations of Southern Germany 98. 14.1. Introduction 99. 14.2. Stratigraphical results and concepts 100. 14.3. Regional description 101. 14.4. Arguable Early Pleistocene glaciations derived from oldest gravel spreads 102. 14.5. Stratigraphical implications from sediments overlying the Zusamplatte gravel (Uhlenberg site and others) 103. 14.6. Ältere Deckenschotter and possibly equivalent glaciation 104. 14.7. Mittlere Deckenschotter and possibly equivalent glaciation 105. 14.8. Jüngere Deckenschotter and equivalent glaciation 106. 14.9. Incision between Jüngere Deckenschotter and Hochterrasse, ‘third from last’ glaciation and the Samerberg site 107. 14.10. The belt of morainic amphitheatres correlated with the penultimate glaciation 108. 14.11. Eemian stage interglacial 109. 14.12. Last glaciation (Würmian) 110. 14.13. Glaciations of low mountain ranges 111. Acknowledgements 112. Glaciation in Greece 113. 15.1. Introduction 114. 15.2. The Glacial Record on Mount Olympus, Northeast Greece 115. 15.3. The Glacial Record on Mount Tymphi, Northwest Greece 116. 15.4. The First Uranium-Series Ages for the Glacial Record in Greece 117. 15.5. Towards a Formal Stratigraphical Framework for the Glacial Record in Greece 118. 15.6. Secondary Carbonate Formation and Environmental Change 119. 15.7. Palaeoclimate Reconstructions from Glacial Geomorphological Data 120. 15.8. River Response to Glaciation and the Last Glacial-to-Interglacial Transition 121. 15.9. The Mount Tymphi and Mount Olympus records 122. 15.10. Pleistocene ELAs Across Greece 123. 15.11. Conclusions and Future Research Needs 124. Acknowledgements 125. Pliocene and Pleistocene Glaciations of Iceland 126. 16.1. Introduction 127. 16.2. Tertiary Glaciations—Earliest Signs of Glaciation in South-East and East Iceland (>3–2.59Ma) 128. 16.3. Early- to Mid-Pleistocene Glaciation (2.59–0.78Ma)—An Icelandic Ice Sheet is Established 129. 16.4. Middle to Late Pleistocene Glaciations in Iceland (0.78–0.126Ma) 130. 16.5. From the Last Glacial Maximum Through to the Last Deglaciation (<0.126Ma) 131. 16.6. Early Holocene Thermal Maximum and the Onset of Neoglaciation 132. 16.7. Glacial Limits and Quality of Data 133. 16.8. Dating of Glacial Limits—Reliability of Dates 134. 16.9. Conclusions 135. Middle Pleistocene to Holocene Glaciations in the Italian Apennines 136. 17.1. Introduction 137. 17.2. Middle Pleistocene glaciations 138. 17.3. Late Pleistocene glaciation 139. 17.4. Holocene neoglaciation 140. 17.5. Conclusions 141. Acknowledgements 142. Pleistocene Glaciations in Latvia 143. 18.1. Introduction 144. 18.2. Early Pleistocene Glaciation 145. 18.3. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 146. 18.4. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 147. 18.5. Glacial Limits 148. 18.6. Conclusions 149. Acknowledgements 150. Pleistocene Glaciations in Lithuania 151. 19.1. Introduction 152. 19.2. Early Pleistocene Glaciation 153. 19.3. Middle Pleistocene 154. 19.4. Late Pleistocene. Lower and Middle Weichselian Substage Glaciations (Nemunas) 155. 19.5. Conclusions 156. Acknowledgements 157. Pleistocene Glaciation in The Netherlands 158. 20.1. Pre-Elsterian glaciations 159. 20.2. The Elsterian glaciation 160. 20.3. The Saalian glaciation in the Netherlands 161. 20.4. The Weichselian glaciation in the North Sea 162. 20.5. Conclusions 163. Acknowledgements 164. The Pleistocene Glaciations of the North Sea Basin 165. 21.1. Introduction 166. 21.2. Early Pleistocene glaciation(s) 167. 21.3. Middle Pleistocene/pre-Elsterian glaciations 168. 21.4. The Elsterian (MIS 12) 169. 21.5. The Saalian (MIS 6–10) 170. 21.6. The Weichselian (MIS 5d–2) 171. 21.7. Summary 172. 21.8. Note on the Maps 173. Acknowledgements 174. Glacial History of Norway 175. 22.1. Introduction 176. 22.2. Early and Middle Quaternary Glaciations 177. 22.3. The Late Quaternary Glaciations—The Weichselian 178. 22.4. The Early and Middle Weichselian 179. 22.5. The Late Weichselian 180. Quaternary Glaciations in Poland 181. 23.1. Introduction 182. 23.2. Early Pleistocene Glaciations 183. 23.3. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 184. 23.4. Late Pleistocene Glaciation 185. 23.5. Conclusions 186. New Evidence on the Quaternary Glaciation in the Romanian Carpathians 187. 24.1. Introduction 188. 24.2. The setting 189. 24.3. Methodological aspects 190. 24.4. The arguments 191. 24.5. Eastern Carpathians 192. 24.6. The Southern Carpathians 193. 24.7. The Apuseni Mountains 194. 24.8. Glacier orientations 195. 24.9. Problems of age assignment 196. 24.10. Reconstructed Pleistocene ELAs 197. 24.11. Conclusions and open questions 198. Ice Margins of Northern Russia Revisited 199. 25.1. Introduction 200. 25.2. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 201. 25.3. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 202. 25.4. New Solutions 203. 25.5. Conclusion 204. Acknowledgements 205. Glaciations of the East European Plain 206. 26.1. Introduction 207. 26.2. Likovo Glaciation 208. 26.3. Akulovo Interglacial 209. 26.4. Krasikovo Interglacial 210. 26.5. Setun’ Glaciation 211. 26.6. Okatovo Interglacial 212. 26.7. Don Glaciation 213. 26.8. Muchkap Interglacial 214. 26.9. Ikorets Interglacial 215. 26.10. Oka Glaciation 216. 26.11. Likhvin Interglacial 217. 26.12. Pechora Glaciation 218. 26.13. Kamenka Interglacial 219. 26.14. Dnieper Glacial Epoch 220. 26.15. Mikulino Interglacial 221. 26.16. Valdai Glaciation 222. Glacial History of the Barents Sea Region 223. 27.1. Introduction 224. 27.2. Physiography and Quaternary Sediments 225. 27.3. Palaeogene and Neogene 226. 27.4. Early Pleistocene (~2.6 to ~0.7Ma) 227. 27.5. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations (0.78–0.12Ma) 228. 27.6. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 229. 27.7. The Early and Middle Weichselian Glacial History 230. 27.8. The Late Weichselian Ice Sheet 231. Acknowledgements 232. Glacial History of the Taymyr Peninsula and the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, Arctic Russia 233. 28.1. Introduction 234. 28.2. The Middle Pleistocene Pre-Saalian History 235. 28.3. The Middle/Late Pleistocene Transition: The Saalian and Eemian Stages 236. 28.4. The Build-Up of KSIS: Changing Paradigms 237. 28.5. The Early Weichselian—The Weichselian Glaciation Maximum on Taymyr 238. 28.6. Deglaciation from the Early Weichselian Maximal Position to the Byrranga Mountains 239. 28.7. The North Taymyr Ice-Marginal Zone 240. 28.8. The Early Weichselian NTZ Stage 241. 28.9. The Middle Weichselian NTZ Stage 242. 28.10. The Late Weichselian NTZ Stage 243. 28.11. The Severnaya Zemlya Islands During the Weichselian Stage 244. 28.12. Summary of Results 245. Glacial History of Slovenia 246. 29.1. Introduction 247. 29.2. Early/Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 248. 29.3. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 249. 29.4. Conclusions 250. Quaternary Glaciations of Turkey 251. 30.1. Introduction 252. 30.2. Quaternary Glacial Landforms 253. 30.3. The Taurus Mountains 254. 30.4. Mountain Ranges Along the Eastern Black Sea 255. 30.5. Volcanoes and Individual Mountains on the Anatolian Plateau 256. 30.6. Conclusions 257. Acknowledgements 258. Limits of the Pleistocene Glaciations in the Ukraine 259. 31.1. Introduction 260. 31.2. The Interpretation of the Primary Data 261. 31.3. The Oka Glaciation in the Western and Northern Parts of the Ukraine and in the Eastern and Southern Parts of Belarus 262. 31.4. The Dnieper Glaciation in the Central and Northern Ukraine and Adjacent Regions of Russia 263. 31.5. Mountain Glaciation in the Ukrainian Carpathians 264. 31.6. Conclusion 265. Acknowledgements 266. Chronology and Extent of Late Cenozoic Ice Sheets in North America 267. Alaska Palaeo-Glacier Atlas (Version 2) 268. 33.1. Introduction 269. 33.2. GIS Procedures 270. 33.3. Palaeo-Glacier Limits 271. 33.4. Regional Updates for APG Atlas v2 272. 33.5. Discussion 273. Full Citation 274. Glaciations of the Sierra Nevada, California, USA 275. 34.1. Introduction 276. 34.2. Glacial Advances 277. 34.3. Discussion 278. 34.4. Summary 279. Acknowledgements 280. Pleistocene Glaciation of Hawaii 281. Quaternary Glaciations in Illinois 282. 36.1. Introduction 283. 36.2. Pre-Illinois Episode 284. 36.3. Illinois Episode 285. Ice-Margin Fluctuations at the End of the Wisconsin Episode, Michigan, USA 286. 37.1. Introduction 287. 37.2. Structure of the Diachronic Classification 288. 37.3. Major Glacial Phases in Michigan 289. 37.4. Discussion 290. 37.5. Summary 291. The Quaternary of Minnesota 292. 38.1. General Character and Age of Quaternary Deposits in Minnesota 293. 38.2. Lithostratigraphy of Quaternary Deposits in Minnesota 294. Pleistocene Glaciation of Ohio, USA 295. 39.1. Introduction 296. 39.2. Tertiary Period 297. 39.3. Early Pleistocene Glaciations 298. 39.4. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 299. 39.5. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 300. 39.6. Conclusions 301. The Glaciation of Pennsylvania, USA 302. 40.1. Introduction 303. 40.2. Discussion of the Glacial Limits 304. 40.3. Discussion of the Dating of the Age of the Glacial Limits 305. 40.4. Early Pleistocene Pseudo-Moraine at Selinsgrove and Allentown Pennsylvania 306. 40.5. Late Wisconsinan Till Knobs Forming ‘Beaded Valleys’ in North-Eastern Pennsylvania 307. 40.6. Open Questions 308. Glaciation of Western Washington, USA 309. 41.1. Cordilleran Ice Sheet in Western Washington 310. 41.2. Glaciation of the Cascade Range 311. 41.3. Glaciation of the Olympic Mountains 312. The Quaternary of Wisconsin 313. 42.1. Introduction 314. 42.2. Early Pleistocene Glaciations 315. 42.3. Middle Pleistocene (Illinoian Glaciation) 316. 42.4. Late Pleistocene (Wisconsinan Glaciation) 317. 42.5. Driftless Area 318. 42.6. Future Work 319. Acknowledgments 320. Summary of Early and Middle Pleistocene Glaciations in Northern Missouri, USA 321. 43.1. Introduction 322. 43.2. Early Work in Missouri 323. 43.3. Stratigraphy and Lithologies 324. 43.4. Chronology 325. 43.5. Glacial Boundaries 326. 43.6. Correlation and Future Work 327. 43.7. Summary and Conclusions 328. Pleistocene Glaciation of British Columbia 329. 44.1. Introduction 330. 44.2. Character and Extent of Cordilleran Ice Sheet 331. 44.3. Growth and Decay of Cordilleran Ice Sheet 332. 44.4. Glacial Erosion and Deposition 333. 44.5. Crustal Deformation 334. 44.6. Stratigraphical Record and Chronology 335. Limits of Successive Middle and Late Pleistocene Continental Ice Sheets, Interior Plains of Southern and Central Alberta and Adjacent Areas 336. 45.1. Introduction 337. 45.2. Cosmogenic exposure dating of glacial erratics in southern Alberta and northern Montana 338. 45.3. Testing the Barendregt–Irving hypothesis: Stratigraphy in Alberta's buried valleys 339. 45.4. Discussion and conclusions 340. Acknowledgement 341. Appendix A. Methods in the cosmogenic 36Cl dating of glacial erratics around Del Bonita upland 342. Appendix B. Basal gravel predating continental glaciation and its time-transgressive nature 343. Appendix C. Elimination of ‘Labuma Till’ and related allostratigraphic units outside of the Red Deer–Stettler area 344. Magnetostratigraphy of Quaternary Sections in Eastern Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba 345. Chapter 46.1. Introduction 346. 46.2. Study Sites 347. 46.3. Discussion 348. 46.4. Conclusions 349. Late Pleistocene–Early Holocene Decay of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in Québec–Labrador 350. 47.1. Introduction 351. 47.2. Overview of the Glacial History of Québec–Labrador 352. 47.3. The Late Wisconsinan (Late Weichselian)–Holocene Deglaciation of Québec–Labrador: Overview 353. 47.4. The Deglaciation in Southern Québec During Late Wisconsinan: From the St. Lawrence Ice Stream to the Early Phase of Younger Dryas 354. 47.5. The Younger Dryas 355. 47.6. Deglaciation of the Canadian Shield Area (Québec and Labrador) During the Early Holocene 356. 47.7. Ice Retreat in the Southern Margin of the New Québec–Labrador Dome: The Laurentians 357. 47.8. Deglaciation of Central and Southern Labrador 358. 47.9. Deglaciation on the Western Side of the New Québec Dome 359. 47.10. Deglaciation in the Northern Areas of Québec–Labrador 360. 47.11. The Latest Deglaciated Areas in Nunavik, Central New Québec and Western Labrador 361. 47.12. Pending Questions on the Deglaciation of Québec–Labrador 362. 47.13. Conclusions 363. Acknowledgements 364. The Appalachian Glacier Complex in Maritime Canada 365. 48.1. Introduction 366. 48.2. Pre-Illinoian Record 367. 48.3. Northumberland Phase (MIS 6; ~190–130ka) 368. 48.4. Sangamonian Interglacial (MIS 5; 128–75ka) 369. 48.5. Early–Middle Wisconsinan Caledonia Phase (75–50?ka) 370. 48.6. Mid-Wisconsinan Retreat Phase (MIS 3; ~50–25ka) 371. 48.7. Late Wisconsinan Escuminac Phase (MIS 2; 25–20ka) 372. 48.8. Late Wisconsinan Scotian Phase (20–17ka) 373. 48.9. Chignecto Phase (15.9–14.7ka) 374. 48.10. Shulie Lake Phase (~13.8ka) 375. 48.11. Collins Pond Phase (Younger Dryas Chronozone—12.9–11.7ka) 376. 48.12. Discussion: Problems of the Quaternary in Maritime Canada 377. 48.13. Conclusions 378. Stratigraphical Record of Glacials/Interglacials in Northwest Canada 379. 49.1. Introduction 380. 49.2. West-Central Yukon (Tintina Trench, Klondike Plateau, Fort Selkirk) 381. 49.3. Northwest Territories 382. 49.4. Northern British Columbia 383. 49.5. Southern British Columbia 384. 49.6. Regional Correlations 385. 49.7. Late Pliocene preglacial sediments and the first glaciation (MIS G6) 386. 49.8. Earliest Matuyama glaciations (2.2–2.6Ma, MIS 100 or 98 or 96) 387. 49.9. Early Matuyama glaciation (1.98–2.15Ma, MIS 78) 388. 49.10. Olduvai glaciation (1.75–1.98Ma, MIS 70?) 389. 49.11. Late Matuyama glaciations (1.06–1.78Ma, MIS 58, 34) 390. 49.12. Jaramillo Subchron glaciation (0.99–1.05Ma, MIS 30) 391. 49.13. Latest Matuyama glaciation (0.99–0.78Ma, MIS 20 or 22) 392. 49.14. Early Brunhes glaciations (0.78–0.40Ma, MIS 18, 16 and 12?) 393. 49.15. Late Brunhes glaciations (0.40–0.015Ma, MIS 10–2) 394. 49.16. Latest Brunhes glaciations (32–12ka, MIS 2) 395. 49.17. Conclusions 396. Acknowledgements 397. The Greenland Ice Sheet During the Past 300,000 Years: A Review 398. 50.1. Introduction 399. 50.2. Saalian Stage (Fig. 50.2, MIS≥6, ca. 300–130ka BP) 400. 50.3. The Eemian Stage (Fig. 50.2, MIS 5e, 135–115ka BP) 401. 50.4. The Weichselian Stage (MIS 5d-1, ca. 115–11.7ka BP) 402. 50.5. Deglaciation 403. 50.6. Summary 404. Pleistocene Glaciations in Southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego 405. 51.1. Introduction 406. 51.2. The Southern Patagonian palaeo-ice-Lobes 407. 51.3. The Fuegian palaeo-ice-lobes 408. 51.4. Final comments 409. Acknowledgements 410. Pleistocene Glaciations in Northern Patagonia, Argentina: An Updated Review 411. 52.1. Introduction 412. 52.2. The Río Malleo Valley (latitude 39°37′30″S; longitude 71°17′W) 413. 52.3. Heads of the Río Limay and Lago Nahuel Huapi (latitude 41°8′S; longitude 71°8′W) 414. 52.4. The pre-Andean valley of El Maitén (latitude 42°10′S; –longitude 71°10′S) 415. 52.5. Valley of Esquel and Río Corintos (latitude 43°S; longitude 71°W) 416. 52.6. The Río Huemul Valley (latitude 43°30′S; longitude 71°10′W) 417. 52.7. The Río Corcovado Valley (latitude 43°45′S; longitude 71°20′W) and Lago General Vintter (latitude 43°55′S; longitude 71°25′W) 418. 52.8. The Río Pico Valley (latitude 44°10′S; longitude 71°20′W) 419. 52.9. The Río Apeleg Valley (latitude 44°30′S; longitude 71°20′W) 420. 52.10. The sequence of the La Plata and Fontana lakes (latitude 45°S; longitude 71°10′W) 421. 52.11. The El Coyte (latitude 45°15′S; longitude 71°15′W), heads of the Río Mayo (latitude 45°30′S; longitude 71°15′W) and Lago Blanco (latitude 45°55′S; longitude 71°15′W) regions 422. The High-Glacial (Last Glacial Maximum) Glacier Cover of the Aconcagua Group and Adjacent Massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America) with a Closer Look at Further Empirical Evidence 423. 53.1. Introduction 424. 53.2. Results 425. Acknowledgements 426. The Pleistocene Glaciations of Chile 427. 54.1. Introduction 428. 54.2. The Andes 429. 54.3. Methods 430. 54.4. The Maximum Glaciations 431. 54.5. The Early/Middle Weichselian/Wisconsinan Glaciation 432. 54.6. The Last Glacial Maximum and Late-Glacial 433. 54.7. Glaciation During the Younger Dryas Chronozone and Antarctic Cold Reversal 434. 54.8. Discussion 435. 54.9. Conclusions 436. Acknowledgements 437. Late Quaternary Glaciations in Bolivia: Comments on Some New Approaches to Dating Morainic Sequences 438. 55.1. Introduction 439. 55.2. Glacial Geomorphological Sequences of the Cordillera Real 440. 55.3. Pre-Weichselian Glaciation 441. 55.4. The Last Glacial Maximum 442. 55.5. Deglaciation 443. 55.6. The Holocene 444. 55.7. Mapping Glacial Limits 445. 55.8. Remaining Questions 446. Acknowledgements 447. Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia 448. 56.1. Introduction 449. 56.2. Geographical setting 450. 56.3. Tertiary and Early Pleistocene glaciations (>MIS 19; >790ka) 451. 56.4. Middle Pleistocene glaciations (MIS 19–6; 790–132ka) 452. 56.5. Late Pleistocene glaciations (MIS 5–2; 132–11.7ka) 453. 56.6. MIS 1 (Holocene) glaciations (11.7ka–present) 454. 56.7. Conclusions 455. Late Quaternary Glaciations of Ecuador 456. 57.1. Introduction 457. 57.2. Bedded (Stratified) Slope Deposits on Moraines in Ecuador 458. 57.3. Pre-LGM Glaciation (Older than 30ka) 459. 57.4. The Last Glacial Maximum 460. 57.5. Deglaciation 461. 57.6. The Holocene 462. 57.7. Mapping Glacial Limits 463. 57.8. Open Questions 464. Acknowledgements 465. Quaternary Glaciations of Colombia 466. 58.1. Introduction 467. 58.2. Early and Middle Pleistocene Glaciations Recorded by Glaciofluvial Sediment in the Bogotá Basin 468. 58.3. Late Pleistocene and Holocene Glaciations Recorded by Moraines in the Eastern Cordillera 469. 58.4. Mountain Ranges Near Bogotá 470. 58.5. Sierra Nevada del Cocuy 471. 58.6. Comparison with the Glacial Record of the Central Cordillera 472. 58.7. Summary 473. Acknowledgments 474. Late Quaternary Glaciations in the Venezuelan (Mérida) Andes 475. 59.1. Introduction 476. 59.2. Early and Middle Pleistocene 477. 59.3. Late Pleistocene 478. 59.4. Holocene Glacier Fluctuations 479. Costa Rica and Guatemala 480. 60.1. Introduction 481. 60.2. Glacial Geology 482. 60.3. Ice Cap and Valley Glacier Reconstruction 483. 60.4. Equilibrium Line Altitudes 484. 60.5. Discussion 485. Acknowledgements 486. Late Quaternary Glaciation in Mexico 487. 61.1. Introduction 488. 61.2. Iztaccíhuatl 489. 61.3. Nevado de Toluca 490. 61.4. La Malinche volcano 491. 61.5. Ajusco volcano 492. 61.6. Citlaltépetl 493. 61.7. Cofre de Perote 494. 61.8. Tancítaro 495. 61.9. Nevado de Colima 496. 61.10. Cerro Potosí 497. 61.11. Pre-Weichselian (pre-Wisconsinan) 498. 61.12. Weichselian/Wisconsinan glacial maximum (LLGM) and Holocene 499. 61.13. Open questions 500. 61.14. Summary 501. Acknowledgements 502. Late Pleistocene Glaciation of the Hindu Kush, Afghanistan 503. Late Pleistocene Glaciations in North-East Asia 504. 63.1. Introduction 505. 63.2. Relief and climate 506. 63.3. Late Pleistocene glaciations 507. 63.4. Conclusion 508. Acknowledgement 509. Extent and Timing of Quaternary Glaciations in the Verkhoyansk Mountains 510. 64.1. Introduction 511. 64.2. Verkhoyansk Mountains 512. 64.3. Regional comparison 513. 64.4. Conclusion 514. Glaciation in the High Mountains of Siberia 515. 65.1. Introduction 516. 65.2. Methods 517. 65.3. Characteristics controlling the development of glaciation 518. 65.4. Function and structure of the CGS 519. 65.5. Types and occurrence of the CGS 520. 65.6. Timing of glaciation and results of the dating 521. 65.7. Palaeogeographical interpretation 522. 65.8. Conclusions 523. Late Quaternary Glaciation of Northern Pakistan 524. 66.1. Introduction 525. 66.2. Hindu Kush 526. 66.3. Karakoram 527. 66.4. Western Himalaya 528. 66.5. Indus Valley 529. 66.6. Conclusions 530. Acknowledgements 531. Quaternary Glaciation of Northern India 532. 67.1. Introduction 533. 67.2. Regional Setting 534. 67.3. Kashmir 535. 67.4. Lahul Himalaya 536. 67.5. Zanskar 537. 67.6. Ladakh Range 538. 67.7. Garhwal 539. 67.8. Conclusions 540. Acknowledgements 541. The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and Last Glacial Maximum) Ice Cover of High and Central Asia, with a Critical Review of Some Recent OSL and TCN Dates 542. 68.1. Preface 543. 68.2. Introduction: The state of research to 1973 in relation to the author's observations 544. 68.3. Glacial limits: References to the new empirical glacial map database since 2002 545. 68.4. Dating methods and empirical evidence for the general overestimation by numerical dating in High Asia 546. 68.5. The methodological consequences of the comparisons 547. 68.6. Problems: Magnetic field excursions—On the astrophysical sources of error of the TCN technique 548. 68.7. The Question of Aridity 549. 68.8. Conclusions 550. Acknowledgements 551. The Extent and Timing of Late Pleistocene Glaciations in the Altai and Neighbouring Mountain Systems 552. 69.1. Introduction 553. 69.2. Extent of present and Late Pleistocene glaciations 554. 69.3. Present and Late Pleistocene ELA reconstructions 555. 69.4. Timing of Pleistocene glaciations in the Russian Altai and Western Mongolia 556. 69.5. Summary 557. Quaternary Glaciations 558. 70.1. Distribution of Quaternary glacial remnants on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau 559. 70.2. Other mountains 560. 70.3. The sequence of Pleistocene glaciations in China 561. 70.4. ELAS Distributions on the Plateau and the Bordering Mountains 562. 70.5. The Glaciations and the Uplift of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau 563. 70.6. The problem of ice cover 564. 70.7. Conclusions 565. Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Glaciations in the Taiwanese High Mountain Ranges 566. 71.1. Introduction 567. 71.2. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 568. 71.3. Late Glacial and Early Holocene Glaciations 569. 71.4. Equilibrium Line Altitudes and Palaeoclimatic Correlations 570. 71.5. Conclusions 571. Late Quaternary Glaciations in Japan 572. 72.1. Introduction 573. 72.2. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 574. 72.3. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 575. 72.4. Holocene Glaciation 576. The Glaciation of the South-East Asian Equatorial Region 577. 73.1. Introduction 578. 73.2. Western New Guinea (Papua, Indonesia) 579. 73.3. Eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea) 580. 73.4. Middle Pleistocene Glaciations 581. 73.5. Late Pleistocene Glaciations 582. 73.6. Conclusions 583. Acknowledgements 584. The Glaciation of Australia 585. 74.1. Introduction 586. 74.2. Snowy Mountains 587. 74.3. Tasmania 588. 74.4. Climate 589. 74.5. Conclusions 590. Acknowledgements 591. Quaternary Glaciers of New Zealand 592. 75.1. Introduction 593. 75.2. Early Pleistocene Glaciers 594. 75.3. Gaps in the Early Pleistocene Glacial Record 595. 75.4. Middle and Late Pleistocene (and Holocene) Glaciers 596. 75.5. Conclusions 597. Acknowledgements 598. Quaternary Glaciations of the Atlas Mountains, North Africa 599. 76.1. Introduction 600. 76.2. The High Atlas 601. 76.3. The Middle Atlas and the Rif 602. 76.4. Algerian Atlas 603. 76.5. Palaeoglaciers in North Africa: Their Importance for Understanding Palaeoclimates 604. 76.6. Conclusions 605. Acknowledgements 606. Quaternary Glacial Chronology of Mount Kenya Massif 607. Glaciation in Southern Africa and in the Sub-Antarctic 608. 78.1. Introduction 609. 78.2. Glaciation in Southern Africa 610. 78.3. The Sub-Antarctic
