Brenner and Rector's The Kidney E-Book

1. Introduction - p. 81 2. Renal Blood Flow and Glomerular Filtration Rate - p. 82 3. Paracrine and Endocrine Factors Regulating Renal Hemodynamics and Glomerular Filtration Rate - p. 95 4. Neural Regulation of Renal Circulation - p. 112 5. Glomerular Hemodynamics in the Aging Kidney - p. 112 6. References - p. 114.e1 7. Board Review Questions - p. 114.e11 8. 4 Glomerular Cell Biology and Podocytopathies - p. 115 9. 5 Metabolic Basis of Solute Transport - p. 133 10. 6 Transport of Sodium, Chloride, and Potassium - p. 156 11. Introduction to Na, Cl, and K Transport - p. 156 12. Potassium Transport - p. 188 13. References - p. 198.e1 14. Board Review Questions - p. 198.e14 15. 7 The Regulation of Calcium, Magnesium, and Phosphate Excretion by the Kidney - p. 199 16. Abstract - p. 199 17. Calcium Transport in the Kidney - p. 199 18. Magnesium Transport in the Kidney - p. 207 19. Phosphorus Transport in the Kidney - p. 210 20. References - p. 217.e1 21. Board Review Questions - p. 217.e14 22. 8 Renal Handling of Organic Solutes - p. 218 23. Abstract - p. 218 24. Glucose - p. 218 25. Organic Cations and Anions - p. 230 26. Amino Acids - p. 239 27. References - p. 246.e1 28. Board Review Question - p. 246.e9 29. 9 Renal Acidification Mechanisms - p. 247 30. Bicarbonate Reabsorption - p. 247 31. Bicarbonate Generation - p. 260 32. Acid–Base Sensors - p. 271 33. Diurnal Variation in Acid Excretion - p. 272 34. Acknowledgments - p. 272 35. References - p. 273.e1 36. Board Review Questions - p. 273.e11 37. 10 Urine Concentration and Dilution - p. 274 38. Abstract - p. 274 39. Independent Regulation of Water and Salt Excretion - p. 275 40. Organization of Structures in the Kidney Relevant to Urinary Concentrating and Diluting Process - p. 275 41. Vasopressin and the Type 2 Vasopressin Receptor - p. 283 42. Vasopressin-Regulated Water Transport - p. 285 43. Vasopressin-Regulated Urea Transport in the Inner Medulla - p. 291 44. Urine Concentration and Dilution Processes Along the Mammalian Nephron - p. 296 45. Acknowledgments - p. 301 46. References - p. 302.e1 47. Board Review Questions - p. 302.e11 48. 11 Vasoactive Molecules and the Kidney - p. 303 49. Abstract - p. 303 50. Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone System - p. 303 51. Endothelin - p. 313 52. Natriuretic Peptides - p. 318 53. Kallikrein–Kinin System - p. 326 54. Urotensin II - p. 331 55. References - p. 334.e1 56. Board Review Questions - p. 334.e13 57. 12 Aldosterone and Mineralocorticoid Receptors - p. 335 58. 13 Arachidonic Acid Metabolites and the Kidney - p. 357 59. Abstract - p. 357 60. Cellular Origin of Eicosanoids - p. 357 61. The Cyclooxygenase Pathway - p. 358 62. Renal COX-1 and COX-2 Expression - p. 360 63. Renal Complications of Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs - p. 364 64. Cardiovascular Effects of COX-2 Inhibitors - p. 366 65. Prostanoids - p. 366 66. Prostaglandins - p. 376 67. Involvement of Cyclooxygenase Metabolites in Renal Pathophysiology - p. 377 68. The Lipoxygenase Pathway - p. 381 69. The Cytochrome P450 Pathway - p. 384 70. Acknowledgments - p. 388 71. References - p. 388.e1 72. Board Review Questions - p. 388.e13 73. Section II Disorders of Body Fluid Volume and Composition - p. 388.e13 74. 14 Disorders of Sodium Balance - p. 390 75. Physiology - p. 390 76. Sodium Balance Disorders - p. 414 77. Specific Treatments Based on the Pathophysiology of Heart Failure - p. 437 78. Sodium-Glucose Transporter-2 Inhibitors - p. 440 79. Specific Treatments Based on the Pathophysiology of Sodium Retention in Cirrhosis - p. 440 80. References - p. 442.e1 81. 15 Disorders of Water Balance - p. 443 82. Body Fluids: Compartmentalization, Composition, and Turnover - p. 443 83. Water Metabolism - p. 445 84. Disorders of Insufficient Vasopressin or Vasopressin Effect - p. 455 85. Disorders of Excess Vasopressin or Vasopressin Effect - p. 473 86. Pathogenesis and Causes of Hyponatremia - p. 475 87. Hyponatremia: Symptoms, Morbidity, and Mortality - p. 484 88. Hyponatremia Treatment - p. 487 89. References - p. 495.e1 90. 16 Disorders of Acid-Base Balance - p. 496 91. Acid-Base Homeostasis - p. 496 92. Renal Regulation - p. 497 93. Systemic Response to Respiratory Acidosis or Alkalosis - p. 499 94. Systemic Response to Addition of Metabolic Acids - p. 500 95. Systemic Response to Gain of Alkali - p. 502 96. Stepwise Approach to the Diagnosis of Acid-Base Disorders - p. 504 97. Respiratory Disorders - p. 508 98. Metabolic Disorders - p. 511 99. References - p. 536.e1 100. 17 Disorders of Potassium Balance - p. 537 101. Potassium Disorders - p. 537 102. Normal Potassium Balance - p. 537 103. Renal Potassium Excretion - p. 541 104. Consequences of Hyperkalemia and Hypokalemia - p. 547 105. Hypokalemia - p. 550 106. Hyperkalemia - p. 564 107. References - p. 579.e1 108. 18 Disorders of Calcium, Magnesium, and Phosphate Balance - p. 580 109. Abstract - p. 580 110. Disorders of Calcium Homeostasis - p. 580 111. Disorders of Magnesium Homeostasis - p. 597 112. Disorders of Phosphate Homeostasis - p. 604 113. References - p. 613.e1 114. Board Review Questions - p. 613.e10 115. Section III Epidemiology and Risk Factors in Kidney Disease - p. 613.e10 116. 19 Epidemiology of Kidney Disease - p. 616 117. 20 Risk Prediction in Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 640 118. 21 Developmental Programming of Blood Pressure and Renal Function Through the Life Course - p. 667 119. Abstract - p. 667 120. Developmental Programming - p. 668 121. Developmental Programming in the Kidney - p. 668 122. Evidence for Programming in the Kidney - p. 671 123. Programming of Renal Function and Disease - p. 681 124. Proposed Mechanisms of Developmental Programming in the Kidney - p. 692 125. Maternal Health and Intergenerational Effects of Programming - p. 703 126. Impact of Nephron Endowment in Transplantation - p. 704 127. Global Health Relevance of Renal Programming - p. 707 128. Conclusion - p. 707 129. References - p. 709.e1 130. Board Review Questions - p. 709.e13 131. 22 The Physiology and Pathophysiology of the Kidneys in Aging - p. 710 132. Section IV Evaluation of the Patient with Kidney Disease - p. 730.e10 133. 23 Laboratory Assessment of Kidney Disease: Glomerular Filtration Rate, Urinalysis, and Proteinuria - p. 732 134. 24 Interpretation of Electrolyte and Acid-Base Parameters in Blood and Urine - p. 758 135. 25 Diagnostic Kidney Imaging - p. 796 136. Abstract - p. 796 137. Imaging Techniques - p. 796 138. Imaging in Clinical Nephrology - p. 815 139. Acknowledgments - p. 860 140. References - p. 861.e1 141. Board Review Questions - p. 861.e10 142. 26 The Renal Biopsy - p. 862 143. 27 Biomarkers in Acute and Chronic Kidney Diseases - p. 872 144. Abstract - p. 872 145. Biomarker Definition - p. 873 146. Process of Biomarker Discovery, Assay Validation, and Qualification in a Clinical Context - p. 873 147. Analysis of Biomarker Performance - p. 874 148. Characteristics of an Ideal Biomarker for Kidney Disease - p. 875 149. Critical Path Initiative: A Need for Better Biomarkers - p. 902 150. Kidney Health Initiative - p. 903 151. Future of Biomarkers - p. 903 152. Acknowledgments - p. 903 153. Disclosure - p. 903 154. References - p. 904.e1 155. Board Review Questions - p. 904.e11 156. Section V Disorders of Kidney Structure and Function - p. 904.e12 157. 28 Pathophysiology of Acute Kidney Injury - p. 906 158. Abstract - p. 906 159. Pathophysiology of Clinical Acute Kidney Injury - p. 906 160. Pathophysiology of Acute Kidney Injury - p. 912 161. References - p. 939.e1 162. Board Review Questions - p. 939.e12 163. 29 Prevention and Management of Acute Kidney Injury - p. 940 164. Abstract - p. 940 165. Definition of Acute Kidney Injury - p. 940 166. Incidence of Acute Kidney Injury - p. 943 167. Categorization of Acute Kidney Injury - p. 944 168. Evaluation of Acute Kidney Injury - p. 944 169. Causes of Acute Kidney Injury in Specific Clinical Settings - p. 952 170. Complications of Acute Kidney Injury - p. 957 171. Management of Acute Kidney Injury - p. 959 172. References - p. 977.e1 173. Board Review Questions - p. 977.e15 174. 30 Pathophysiology of Proteinuria - p. 978 175. Mechanisms of Proteinuria - p. 978 176. Renal Consequences of Proteinuria - p. 984 177. Systemic Consequences of Nephrotic-Range Proteinuria - p. 996 178. Acknowledgments - p. 1005 179. References - p. 1006.e1 180. Board Review Questions - p. 1006.e9 181. 31 Primary Glomerular Disease - p. 1007 182. Abstract - p. 1007 183. References - p. 1091.e1 184. Board Review Questions - p. 1091.e32 185. 32 Secondary Glomerular Disease - p. 1092 186. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus - p. 1092 187. Antiphospholipid Syndrome - p. 1106 188. Mixed Connective Tissue Disease - p. 1108 189. Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody–Associated Vasculitis - p. 1109 190. Glomerular Involvement in Other Vasculitides - p. 1119 191. Henoch–Schönlein Purpura - p. 1122 192. Antiglomerular Basement Membrane Disease and Goodpasture Syndrome - p. 1125 193. Sjögren Syndrome - p. 1128 194. Sarcoidosis - p. 1129 195. Amyloidosis - p. 1129 196. Fibrillary Glomerulonephritis and Immunotactoid Glomerulonephritis - p. 1134 197. Other Glomerular Diseases and Dysproteinemia - p. 1138 198. Waldenström Macroglobulinemia - p. 1138 199. Alport Syndrome - p. 1141 200. Thin Basement Membrane Nephropathy - p. 1144 201. Differential Diagnosis of Familial Hematurias - p. 1144 202. Nail–Patella Syndrome (Hereditary Osteo-Onychodysplasia) - p. 1145 203. Fabry Disease (Angiokeratoma Corporis Diffusum Universale) - p. 1146 204. Sickle Cell Nephropathy - p. 1148 205. Lipodystrophy - p. 1149 206. Lecithin-Cholesterol Acyltransferase Deficiency - p. 1150 207. Lipoprotein Glomerulopathy - p. 1151 208. Glomerular Involvement With Bacterial Infections - p. 1151 209. Glomerular Involvement With Parasitic Diseases - p. 1153 210. Glomerular Involvement With Viral Infections - p. 1153 211. Glomerular Manifestations of Liver Disease - p. 1157 212. Glomerular Lesions Associated With Neoplasia - p. 1160 213. Glomerular Disease Associated With Drugs - p. 1161 214. Miscellaneous Diseases Associated With Glomerular Lesions - p. 1163 215. References - p. 1164.e1 216. 33 Treatment of Glomerulonephritis - p. 1165 217. 34 Thrombotic Microangiopathies - p. 1178 218. 35 Tubulointerstitial Diseases - p. 1196 219. Abstract - p. 1196 220. Introduction - p. 1197 221. Primary Versus Secondary Tubulointerstitial Disease - p. 1197 222. Mechanisms of Tubulointerstitial Injury - p. 1197 223. Genetic Causes of Tubulointerstitial Diseases - p. 1201 224. Acute Tubulointerstitial Nephritis - p. 1203 225. Chronic Tubulointerstitial Diseases - p. 1214 226. Acknowledgments - p. 1221 227. References - p. 1222.e1 228. Board Review Questions - p. 1222.e8 229. 36 Urinary Tract Infection in Adults - p. 1223 230. Definitions - p. 1223 231. General Concepts - p. 1224 232. Usual Presentations of Urinary Tract Infection - p. 1227 233. Urinary Tract Infection in Unique Patient Populations - p. 1240 234. Other Infections of the Urinary Tract - p. 1242 235. Uncommon Organisms - p. 1244 236. References - p. 1249.e1 237. Board Review Questions - p. 1249.e8 238. 37 Urinary Tract Obstruction - p. 1250 239. Abstract - p. 1250 240. Prevalence and Incidence - p. 1251 241. Classification - p. 1251 242. Etiology - p. 1251 243. Clinical Aspects - p. 1255 244. Diagnosis - p. 1256 245. Pathophysiology of Obstructive Nephropathy - p. 1262 246. Pathophysiology of Recovery of Tubular Epithelial Cells From Obstruction or of Tubulointerstitial Fibrosis - p. 1270 247. Treatment of Urinary Tract Obstruction and Recovery of Renal Function - p. 1273 248. Postobstructive Diuresis - p. 1274 249. References - p. 1276.e1 250. Board Review Questions - p. 1276.e7 251. 38 Urolithiasis - p. 1277 252. Abstract - p. 1277 253. Introduction - p. 1277 254. Epidemiology - p. 1277 255. Histopathology - p. 1280 256. Pathophysiology - p. 1282 257. Genetics - p. 1306 258. Nephrolithiasis as a Systemic Disorder - p. 1307 259. Evaluation - p. 1313 260. Management of Stones - p. 1319 261. Acknowledgments - p. 1325 262. References - p. 1326.e1 263. Board Review Questions - p. 1326.e20 264. 39 Epidemiology of Diabetic Kidney Disease - p. 1327 265. Abstract - p. 1327 266. Definition, Measurement, and Classification - p. 1327 267. Clinical Course - p. 1339 268. Pathology of the Kidney in Diabetes - p. 1342 269. Pathophysiology - p. 1353 270. Treatment - p. 1358 271. End-Stage Kidney Disease - p. 1370 272. Acknowledgments - p. 1378 273. References - p. 1379.e1 274. Board Review Questions - p. 1379.e23 275. 40 Cardiorenal Syndromes - p. 1380 276. 41 Kidney Cancer - p. 1392 277. 42 Onconephrology - p. 1407 278. Volume Two - p. 1431.e7 279. Section VI Genetics of Kidney Disease - p. 1431.e7 280. 43 Inherited Disorders of the Glomerulus - p. 1434 281. 44 Inherited Disorders of the Renal Tubule - p. 1450 282. Abstract - p. 1450 283. Inherited Disorders Associated With Generalized Dysfunction of the Proximal Tubule (Renal Fanconi Syndrome) - p. 1450 284. Inherited Disorders of Renal Amino Acid Transport - p. 1461 285. Inherited Disorders of Renal Phosphate Transport - p. 1465 286. Inherited Disorder of Urate Transport - p. 1469 287. Inherited Disorders of Renal Glucose Transport - p. 1469 288. Inherited Disorders of Acid–Base Transporters - p. 1470 289. Bartter and Gitelman Syndromes - p. 1473 290. Inherited Disorders With Hypertension and Hypokalemia - p. 1475 291. Pseudohypoaldosteronism - p. 1479 292. Inherited Disorders of Renal Magnesium Processing - p. 1481 293. Diabetes Insipidus - p. 1483 294. References - p. 1489.e1 295. Board Review Questions - p. 1489.e8 296. 45 Cystic Diseases of the Kidney - p. 1490 297. Abstract - p. 1490 298. Classification of Renal Cystic Diseases - p. 1490 299. Development of Renal Epithelial Cysts - p. 1490 300. Hereditary Cystic Kidney Disorders - p. 1493 301. Polycystic Kidney and/or Liver Diseases Associated With Altered Maturation of PKD Proteins in the Endoplasmic Reticulum - p. 1515 302. Autosomal Recessive Ciliopathies With Interstitial Nephritis and Renal Cystic Disease - p. 1520 303. Renal Cystic Dysplasia - p. 1525 304. Other Cystic Kidney Disorders - p. 1527 305. Renal Cystic Neoplasms - p. 1532 306. Renal Cysts of Nontubular Origin - p. 1533 307. References - p. 1534.e1 308. Section VII Hypertension and the Kidney - p. 1534.e13 309. 46 Primary and Secondary Hypertension - p. 1536 310. Abstract - p. 1536 311. Hypertension Definitions - p. 1536 312. Epidemiology - p. 1540 313. Economics of Hypertension - p. 1542 314. Pathophysiology - p. 1542 315. Gut Microbiome - p. 1552 316. Clinical Evaluation - p. 1552 317. Secondary Hypertension - p. 1560 318. Hypertensive Urgency and Emergency - p. 1568 319. Goals of Antihypertensive Therapy - p. 1570 320. Management of Hypertension in Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1577 321. Resistant Hypertension - p. 1578 322. References - p. 1579.e1 323. Board Review Questions - p. 1579.e8 324. 47 Renovascular Hypertension and Ischemic Nephropathy - p. 1580 325. Abstract - p. 1580 326. Introduction - p. 1580 327. Pathophysiology of Renovascular Hypertension and Ischemic Nephropathy - p. 1583 328. Phases of Development of Renovascular Hypertension - p. 1587 329. Epidemiology of Renal Artery Stenosis and Renovascular Hypertension - p. 1593 330. Clinical Features - p. 1595 331. Changing Population Demographics - p. 1599 332. Diagnostic Testing for Renovascular Hypertension and Ischemic Nephropathy - p. 1600 333. Management of Renal Artery Stenosis and Ischemic Nephropathy - p. 1606 334. Predictors of Likely Benefit Regarding Renal Revascularization - p. 1619 335. Summary - p. 1620 336. References - p. 1621.e1 337. Board Review Questions - p. 1621.e7 338. 48 Pregnancy and Kidney Disease - p. 1622 339. Abstract - p. 1622 340. Introduction - p. 1622 341. Physiologic Changes of Pregnancy - p. 1622 342. Preeclampsia and HELLP Syndrome - p. 1626 343. Chronic Hypertension and Gestational Hypertension - p. 1640 344. Acute Kidney Injury in Pregnancy - p. 1644 345. Chronic Kidney Disease in Pregnancy - p. 1646 346. References - p. 1653.e1 347. Board Review Questions - p. 1653.e11 348. 49 Antihypertensive Therapy - p. 1654 349. Abstract - p. 1654 350. Pharmacology of the Nondiuretic Antihypertensive Drugs - p. 1654 351. Selection of Antihypertensive Drug Therapy - p. 1690 352. Drug Treatment of Hypertensive Urgencies and Emergencies - p. 1702 353. Acknowledgments - p. 1706 354. References - p. 1707.e1 355. Board Review Questions - p. 1707.e16 356. 50 Diuretics - p. 1708 357. Individual Classes of Diuretics - p. 1709 358. Adaptation to Diuretic Therapy - p. 1721 359. Clinical Uses of Diuretics - p. 1725 360. Adverse Effects of Diuretics - p. 1734 361. References - p. 1740.e1 362. Board Review Questions - p. 1740.e12 363. Section VIII Consequences of Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1740.e12 364. 51 Mechanisms of Progression in Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1742 365. Abstract - p. 1742 366. Introduction - p. 1742 367. Structural and Functional Adaptation of the Kidney to Nephron Loss - p. 1743 368. Adaptation of Specific Tubule Functions in Response to Nephron Loss - p. 1752 369. Long-Term Adverse Consequences of Adaptations to Nephron Loss - p. 1757 370. Insights From Modifiers of Chronic Kidney Disease Progression - p. 1772 371. Future Directions - p. 1788 372. References - p. 1789.e1 373. Board Review Questions - p. 1789.e20 374. 52 The Pathophysiology of Uremia - p. 1790 375. 53 Chronic Kidney Disease–Mineral Bone Disorder - p. 1805 376. Abstract - p. 1805 377. Pathophysiology of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder - p. 1806 378. Diagnosis of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder - p. 1822 379. Clinical Consequences of the Abnormalities in Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder - p. 1831 380. Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder in Kidney Transplant Recipients - p. 1834 381. Summary - p. 1836 382. References - p. 1837.e1 383. Board Review Questions - p. 1837.e8 384. 54 Cardiovascular Aspects of Kidney Disease - p. 1838 385. 55 Hematologic Aspects of Kidney Disease - p. 1861 386. Abstract - p. 1861 387. Anemia of Kidney Disease - p. 1861 388. Disorders of Hemostasis in Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1892 389. White Cell Function in Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1897 390. References - p. 1900.e1 391. Board Review Questions - p. 1900.e21 392. 56 Endocrine Aspects of Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1901 393. 57 Neurologic Aspects of Kidney Disease - p. 1916 394. 58 Dermatologic Conditions in Kidney Disease - p. 1932 395. Section IX Management of Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1944.e3 396. 59 Classification and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1946 397. Abstract - p. 1946 398. Introduction - p. 1946 399. Classification of Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1947 400. Mechanisms of Disease Progression and the Rationale for Interventions to Achieve Renoprotection - p. 1947 401. Interventions for Slowing Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1948 402. Interventions to Reduce Cardiovascular Risk Associated With Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1971 403. Interventions to Manage Complications of Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1972 404. A Stepped Care Approach to Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1973 405. References - p. 1976.e1 406. Board Review Questions - p. 1976.e8 407. 60 Dietary Approaches to Kidney Diseases - p. 1977 408. 61 Drug Dosing Considerations in Patients With Acute Kidney Injury and Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 1989 409. Abstract - p. 1989 410. Effects of AKI and CKD on Drug Disposition - p. 1990 411. Pharmacogenomics - p. 1996 412. Pharmacodynamics - p. 1997 413. Assessment of Kidney Function - p. 1998 414. Drug Dosing Considerations - p. 2001 415. Clinical Bottom Line - p. 2007 416. References - p. 2014.e1 417. Board Review Questions - p. 2014.e7 418. 62 Supportive Care in Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 2015 419. Section X Dialysis and Extracorporeal Therapies - p. 2035.e4 420. 63 Hemodialysis - p. 2038 421. Abstract - p. 2038 422. The Hemodialysis Population - p. 2038 423. Vascular Access - p. 2043 424. General Principles of Hemodialysis: Physiology and Biomechanics - p. 2049 425. Components of the Extracorporeal Circuit - p. 2055 426. Hemodialysis Adequacy - p. 2064 427. The Dialysis Prescription - p. 2071 428. Management of Patients on Maintenance Hemodialysis - p. 2079 429. Complications for Patients on Maintenance Hemodialysis - p. 2088 430. References - p. 2093.e1 431. 64 Peritoneal Dialysis - p. 2094 432. Abstract - p. 2094 433. Peritoneal Membrane Anatomy and Structure - p. 2094 434. Peritoneal Transport Physiology - p. 2095 435. Evaluation of Peritoneal Solute and Water Transfer Rate - p. 2096 436. The Peritoneal Catheter and Access - p. 2097 437. Catheter-Related Complications - p. 2099 438. Peritoneal Dialysis Solutions - p. 2099 439. Peritoneal Dialysis Modalities - p. 2102 440. Dialysis Adequacy - p. 2102 441. Clearance Targets and Clinical Outcomes - p. 2105 442. Nutrition and Peritoneal Dialysis - p. 2106 443. Inflammation and Peritoneal Dialysis - p. 2108 444. Residual Kidney Function and Peritoneal Dialysis - p. 2108 445. Cardiovascular Disease in Peritoneal Dialysis - p. 2109 446. Peritonitis - p. 2110 447. Noninfectious Complications of Peritoneal Dialysis - p. 2114 448. Patient Outcomes With Peritoneal Dialysis - p. 2115 449. Economics and Cost Effectiveness of Peritoneal Dialysis - p. 2116 450. References - p. 2118.e1 451. Board Review Questions - p. 2118.e11 452. 65 Critical Care Nephrology - p. 2119 453. 66 Plasmapheresis - p. 2131 454. 67 Enhanced Elimination of Poisons - p. 2148 455. Abstract - p. 2148 456. Overview of Corporeal Treatments for Enhanced Elimination of Poisons - p. 2148 457. Principles and Factors Influencing Poison Removal During Extracorporeal Treatments - p. 2151 458. Available Extracorporeal Treatments to Enhance Elimination of Poisons - p. 2152 459. General Indications for Extracorporeal Removal of Poisons - p. 2154 460. Poisons Amenable to Extracorporeal Elimination - p. 2156 461. Conclusion - p. 2172 462. References - p. 2173.e1 463. Board Review Questions - p. 2173.e9 464. 68 Interventional Nephrology - p. 2174 465. Section XI Kidney Transplantation - p. 2209.e7 466. 69 The Immunobiology of Transplantation - p. 2212 467. Abstract - p. 2212 468. Mechanisms Involved in Allorecognition - p. 2213 469. Antigen Presentation Pathways - p. 2213 470. T-Cell Cosignaling Pathways - p. 2214 471. T-Cell Phenotypes - p. 2215 472. B Cells and Antibody Production - p. 2217 473. Histocompability Testing for the Kidney Transplant Candidate and Recipient - p. 2223 474. Human Leukocyte Antigen Typing - p. 2223 475. Human Leukocyte Antigen Antibody Screening and Identification - p. 2228 476. Interpreting Solid-Phase Human Leukocyte Antigen Antibody Tests - p. 2229 477. The Evolving Role of Histocompatibility Consultation - p. 2235 478. Kidney Allograft Rejection - p. 2235 479. Mechanisms of Action of Immunosuppressive Drugs - p. 2237 480. Induction Agents - p. 2237 481. Monoclonal Antibodies - p. 2238 482. Maintenance Immunosuppressive Drugs - p. 2239 483. Other Immunosuppressive Agents Used in the Field of Kidney Transplantation - p. 2241 484. Concluding Remarks - p. 2241 485. References - p. 2243.e1 486. Board Review Questions - p. 2243.e9 487. 70 Clinical Management of the Adult Kidney Transplant Recipient - p. 2244 488. Abstract - p. 2244 489. The Transplant Surgery Procedure - p. 2244 490. Currently Used Immunosuppressive Agents in Kidney Transplantation - p. 2246 491. Maintenance Immunosuppressive Agents - p. 2249 492. Evaluation of the Recipient Immediately Before the Transplant - p. 2254 493. Evaluation of the Recipient Immediately After the Transplant - p. 2255 494. Management of Allograft Dysfunction - p. 2255 495. Assessing Outcomes in Kidney Transplantation - p. 2271 496. Medical Management of the Transplant Recipient - p. 2276 497. Transplant Issues in Specific Patient Groups - p. 2284 498. Transplantation/Immunosuppression: the Future - p. 2286 499. Conclusion - p. 2286 500. References - p. 2287.e1 501. Board Review Questions - p. 2287.e11 502. 71 Considerations in Living Kidney Donation - p. 2288 503. Section XII Pediatric Nephrology - p. 2304.e5 504. 72 Diseases of the Kidney and Upper Urinary Tract in Children - p. 2306 505. Abstract - p. 2306 506. The Spectrum of Kidney and Urinary Tract Disorders in Children - p. 2307 507. Evaluation of Kidney Function in Children - p. 2307 508. Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract - p. 2308 509. Clinical Classification of Kidney Malformation - p. 2308 510. Epidemiology of Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract - p. 2309 511. Pathogenesis of Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract - p. 2310 512. Molecular Pathogenesis - p. 2311 513. The Environment in Utero and Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract - p. 2314 514. Functional Consequences of Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract - p. 2315 515. Clinical Presentation of Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract - p. 2316 516. Clinical Management of Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract - p. 2318 517. Glomerular Diseases - p. 2319 518. Thin Basement Membrane Nephropathy - p. 2320 519. Nephrotic Syndrome - p. 2322 520. Treatment of Nephrotic Syndrome - p. 2326 521. Complement-Associated Kidney Diseases - p. 2331 522. Immune Complex Membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis and C3 Glomerulopathy - p. 2332 523. Postinfectious (Poststreptococcal) Glomerulonephritis - p. 2339 524. Membranous Nephropathy - p. 2339 525. Thrombotic Microangiopathy - p. 2341 526. Infectious Forms of Thrombotic Microangiopathy - p. 2344 527. Noninfectious, Noncomplement-Mediated Forms of Thrombotic Microangiopathy - p. 2345 528. Noninfectious, Complement-Mediated Thrombotic Microangiopathy - p. 2347 529. Secondary Forms of Thrombotic Microangiopathy With Possible Complement Contribution - p. 2349 530. Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura - p. 2351 531. Systemic Diseases With Renal Involvement - p. 2353 532. Renal Diseases With Vasculitis - p. 2356 533. Tubular Disorders - p. 2361 534. Urolithiasis and Nephrocalcinosis in Children - p. 2366 535. Genetics of Pediatric Urolithiasis and Nephrocalcinosis - p. 2369 536. Pediatric Aspects of Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 2371 537. Prevention and Treatment of Growth Failure in Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 2372 538. Cardiovascular Comorbidity in Pediatric Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 2373 539. Progression of Chronic Renal Failure in Children - p. 2375 540. References - p. 2377.e1 541. Board Review Questions - p. 2377.e26 542. 73 Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Disorders in Children - p. 2378 543. 74 Renal Replacement Therapy (Dialysis and Transplantation) in Pediatric End-Stage Kidney Disease - p. 2406 544. Abstract - p. 2406 545. Epidemiology of End-Stage Kidney Disease - p. 2407 546. Etiology - p. 2407 547. Clinical Consequences of Pediatric End-Stage Kidney Disease - p. 2408 548. Mortality - p. 2413 549. Medications - p. 2413 550. Renal Replacement Therapy - p. 2413 551. Advantages of Renal Transplantation Over Chronic Dialysis in Children - p. 2414 552. Comparing Hemodialysis With Peritoneal Dialysis - p. 2415 553. Hemodialysis - p. 2416 554. Peritoneal Dialysis - p. 2419 555. Renal Replacement Therapy for Children With Inborn Errors of Metabolism - p. 2421 556. Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy - p. 2422 557. Pediatric Kidney Transplantation - p. 2423 558. Preparation of the Recipient for Transplantation - p. 2425 559. Transplant Immunology - p. 2428 560. Immunosuppression - p. 2429 561. Perioperative Management - p. 2432 562. Immediate Postoperative Period - p. 2433 563. Early Complications of Kidney Transplantation - p. 2433 564. Chronic Allograft Nephropathy - p. 2438 565. Patient Survival - p. 2438 566. Graft Survival - p. 2438 567. Long-Term Follow-Up of Children With Kidney Transplant - p. 2439 568. References - p. 2444.e1 569. Board Review Questions - p. 2444.e10 570. Section XIII Global Considerations in Kidney Disease - p. 2444.e10 571. 75 Global Challenges and Initiatives in Kidney Health - p. 2446 572. 76 Latin America - p. 2477 573. 77 Global Considerations in Kidney Disease - p. 2493 574. 78 Near and Middle East - p. 2517 575. Abstract - p. 2517 576. Acute Kidney Injury - p. 2518 577. Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 2523 578. Management of End-Stage Kidney Disease in the Middle East - p. 2537 579. Summary - p. 2543 580. Acknowledgment - p. 2544 581. References - p. 2545.e1 582. Board Review Questions - p. 2545.e11 583. 79 Indian Subcontinent - p. 2546 584. 80 The Far East - p. 2563 585. Abstract - p. 2563 586. Introduction - p. 2563 587. Acute Kidney Injury and Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 2565 588. Specific Kidney Diseases - p. 2567 589. Kidney Injury Related to Infections - p. 2576 590. Dialysis in Asia - p. 2583 591. Kidney Transplantation—Special Issues in Asia - p. 2584 592. Concluding Statements - p. 2586 593. References - p. 2587.e1 594. Board Review Questions - p. 2587.e13 595. 81 Oceania Region - p. 2588 596. Section XIV Challenges in Nephrology - p. 2608.e5 597. 82 Ethical Dilemmas Facing Nephrology - p. 2610 598. 83 Health Disparities in Nephrology - p. 2625 599. 84 Care of the Older Adult With Chronic Kidney Disease - p. 2639 600. 85 Stem Cells, Kidney Regeneration, and Gene and Cell Therapy in Nephrology - p. 2662 601. Index - p. I-1